Perempuan dalam al-Quran
Di dalam al-Quran, terdapat pembahasan mengenai perempuan yang tersebar di 53 ayat dalam 15 surat. Kata yang umum digunakan adalah al-nisa (disebut sebanyak 19 kali dalam 8 surat), untsa (disebut sebanyak 3 kali dalam 3 surat) dan imro atun (disebut sebanyak 3 kali di 3 surat). Selebihnya digunakan kata ganti seperti hunna dan sebagainya. Selain kata, terdapat pula beberapa surat mengenai wanita yaitu surat al-Nisa, Maryam, al-Mujadillah dan sebagainya. Dalam surat al-Nisa banyak diterangkan mengenai hukum-hukum nikah, sedangkan dalam surat al-Mujadillah diterangkan mengenai hak-hak seorang istri.
Hak dan Kewajiban Perempuan dalam al-Quran Berikut ini adalah beberapa ayat yang mengisyaratkan hak-hak Perempuan:
Berikanlah maskawin (mahar) kepada wanita (yang kamu nikahi) sebagai pemberian dengan penuh kerelaan. Kemudian jika mereka menyerahkan kepada kamu sebagian dari maskawin itu dengan senang hati, maka makanlah (ambillah) pemberian itu (sebagai makanan) yang sedap lagi baik akibatnya. (Al-Nisaa:4)
Bagi orang laki-laki ada hak bagian dari harta peninggalan ibu-bapak dan kerabatnya, dan bagi orang wanita ada hak bagian (pula) dari harta peninggalan ibu-bapa dan kerabatnya, baik sedikit atau banyak menurut bahagian yang telah ditetapkan. (al-Nisaa:7)
Hai orang-orang yang beriman, tidak halal bagi kamu mempusakai wanita dengan jalan paksa dan janganlah kamu menyusahkan mereka karena hendak mengambil kembali sebagian dari apa yang telah kamu berikan kepadanya, terkecuali bila mereka melakukan pekerjaan keji yang nyata. Dan bergaullah dengan mereka secara patut. Kemudian bila kamu tidak menyukai mereka, (maka bersabarlah) karena mungkin kamu tidak menyukai sesuatu, padahal Allah menjadikan padanya kebaikan yang banyak. (al-Nisaa:19)
Barangsiapa yang mengerjakan amal-amal saleh, baik laki-laki maupun wanita sedang ia orang yang beriman, maka mereka itu masuk ke dalam surga dan mereka tidak dianiaya walau sedikitpun. (al-Nisaa:124)
Orang-orang yang menzhihar isterinya di antara kamu, (menganggap isterinya sebagai ibunya, padahal) tiadalah isteri mereka itu ibu mereka. Ibu-ibu mereka tidak lain hanyalah wanitayang melahirkan mereka. Dan sesungguhnya mereka sungguh-sungguh mengucapkan suatu perkataan mungkar dan dusta. Dan sesungguhnya Allah Maha Pemaaf lagi Maha Pengampun. (al-Mujadillah:2)
Tidak hanya dengan hak al-Quran menaikkan derajat wanita, khususnya wanita Arab pada masa itu, tetapi juga dengan kewajiban-kewajiban tertentu dengan tujuan agar wanita mendapatkan tempat yang terhormat. Beberapa ayat mengenai kewajiban perempuan dalam al-Quran adalah sebagai berikut:
Wanita-wanita yang ditalak handaklah menahan diri (menunggu) tiga kali quru'. Tidak boleh mereka menyembunyikan apa yang diciptakan Allah dalam rahimnya, jika mereka beriman kepada Allah dan hari akhirat. Dan suami-suaminya berhak merujukinya dalam masa menanti itu, jika mereka (para suami) menghendaki ishlah. Dan para wanita mempunyai hak yang seimbang dengan kewajibannya menurut cara yang ma'ruf. Akan tetapi para suami, mempunyai satu tingkatan kelebihan daripada isterinya. Dan Allah Maha Perkasa lagi Maha Bijaksana. (al-Baqarah:228)
Katakanlah kepada wanita yang beriman: "Hendaklah mereka menahan pandangannya, dan kemaluannya, dan janganlah mereka menampakkan perhiasannya, kecuali yang (biasa) nampak dari padanya. Dan hendaklah mereka menutupkan kain kudung ke dadanya, dan janganlah menampakkan perhiasannya kecuali kepada suami mereka, atau ayah mereka, atau ayah suami mereka, atau putera-putera mereka, atau putera-putera suami mereka, atau saudara-saudara laki-laki mereka, atau putera-putera saudara lelaki mereka, atau putera-putera saudara perempuan mereka, atau wanita-wanita islam, atau budak-budak yang mereka miliki, atau pelayan-pelayan laki-laki yang tidak mempunyai keinginan (terhadap wanita) atau anak-anak yang belum mengerti tentang auratwanita. Dan janganlah mereka memukulkan kakinya agar diketahui perhiasan yang mereka sembunyikan. Dan bertaubatlah kamu sekalian kepada Allah, hai orang-orang yang beriman supaya kamu beruntung. (al-Nuur:31)
Surat al-Nisaa ayat 4. Membicarakan mengenai maskawin yang harus diberikan pria kepada wanita yang dinikahinya. Ini merupakan hak wanita sepenuhnya, dan pria tidak berhak menggunakan maskawin tersebut kecuali jika wanita tersebut merelakannya. Merupakan ayat yang membahas mengenai nikah dan kepemilikan.
Surat al-Nisaa ayat 7. Membicarakan tentang bahwa wanita pun memperoleh hak untuk mendapatkan warisan. Merupakan ayat yang membahas mengenai hukum waris.
Surat al-Nisaa ayat 19. Disebutkan bahwa wanita berhak untuk menolak perbuatan yang menzalimi dirinya yang dilakukan oleh suaminya. Wanita pun berhak atas harta pribadi mereka. Membahas mengenai rumah tangga dan kepemilikan.
Surat al-Mujadillah ayat 2. Dituliskan bahwa wanita memiliki haknya sebagai istri, meminta kejelasan bahwa istri berbeda dengan ibu. Membahas mengenai nikah. Al-Quran bertujuan mengangkat hak wanita, karena pada masa itu (bahkan saya rasa hingga kini pun masih terjadi) wanita tidak memiliki hak apa pun atas sesuatu bahkan terhadap tubuhnya sendiri. Jadi, penegasan hak wanita di sini memiliki tujuan untuk merevolusi budaya misoginis yang ada. Karena wanita dan pria merupakan manusia.
Surat al-Nisaa ayat 124. Disebutkan bahwa baik wanita maupun pria akan mendapatkan balasan surga jika mereka melakukan perbuatan baik dan beriman. Membahas mengenai ibadah. Menegaskan bahwa untuk urusan yang satu ini, baik wanita maupun pria sama.
Surat al-Baqarah ayat 228. Menjelaskan mengenai iddah yang merupakan suatu kewajiban wanita yang bercerai. Membahas mengenai nikah. Iddah, dahulu memang dibutuhkan menurut saya bukan agar suami maupun istri diberi waktu untuk rujuk, karena masa iddah ini hanya berlaku untuk wanita sedangkan pria dapat langsung menikah. Melainkan adalah untuk memastikan bahwa wanita tersebut tidak hamil, sehingga nantinya tidak akan menimbulkan praduga tentang siapa ayah si bayi. Dengan teknologi yang ada saat ini, kita dapat mengetahui siapa ayah dari si bayi dan kita pun dapat lebih cepat mengetahui apakah wanita tersebut sedang hamil atau tidak. Jadi, ketentuan tentang masa iddah ini saya rasa dapat dihapus karena tidak relevan lagi.
Surat al-Nuur ayat 31. Menjelaskan mengenai sikap yang pantas bagi wanita untuk berpakaian dan bertindak. Membahas mengenai aurat dan sikap. Ditegaskan pula pada ayat tersebut mengenai “kecuali yang biasa tampak”. Kata biasa, merujuk pada tradisi yang berarti sesuai dengan budaya. Sehingga aurat, cara berpakaian dan cara bersikap dapat berubah-ubah sesuai dengan kebudayaan yang berlaku.
Gender
Gender dalam sosiologi mengacu pada sekumpulan ciri khas yang dikaitkan dengan jenis kelamin individu (seseorang) dan diarahkan pada peran sosial atau identitasnya dalam masyarakat. WHO memberi batasan gender sebagai "seperangkat peran, perilaku, kegiatan, dan atribut yang dianggap layak bagi laki-laki dan perempuan, yang dikonstruksi secara sosial, dalam suatu masyarakat”. Jelas, bahwa gender merupakan suatu produk kebudayaan.
Konsep gender berbeda dari seks atau jenis kelamin (laki-laki dan perempuan) yang bersifat biologis, akan tetapi dalam pembicaraan sehari-hari seks dan gender seringkali saling dipertukarkan.
Permasalahan Gender
Dewasa ini, muncul gerakan-gerakan feminis yang menuntut persamaan hak antara pria dengan perempuan. Dalam menghadapi fenomena tersebut, secara umum terbentuk tiga sikap. Pertama, sikap yang dengan keras menyatakan bahwa hal tersebut tidak mungkin dilakukan. Alasannya bermacam-macam mulai dari alasan teologis (didukung dengan ayat-ayat misoginis) maupun alasan biologis (bahwa wanita dan pria memang berbeda secara biologis sehingga tidak mungkin disamakan).
Kedua, sikap yang mendukung habis-habisan gerakan persamaan hak ini. Alasan yang digunakan, secara umum adalah perempuan maupun pria merupakan manusia sehingga memiliki hak yang sama dalam hal apa pun, terutama dalam hal pilihan jalan hidup. Wanita, bagi kelompok ini, merupakan korban dari peradaban patriarki yang telah berlangsung selama ribuan tahun, sehingga dibutuhkan suatu tindakan ekstrem untuk mencapai persamaan yang diharapkan dan bahkan beberapa di antaranya mengajukan persamaan hak atas tubuh.
Ketiga, merupakan sikap yang moderat. Sikap ini, memakai landasan-landasan teoritis yang lebih masuk akal ketimbang dua sikap ekstrem sebelumnya. Mereka melakukan pengkajian atas persamaan apa yang sebenarnya dapat diraih, dan sebagainya. Beberapa pemuka agama yang terbuka pun mempelajari ulang kitab-kitab suci untuk mendapatkan legitimasi atas hak-hak perempuan.
Analisa
Seperti yang telah dituliskan sebelumnya, perempuan memiliki hak-hak dalam hal harta, rumah tangga maupun ibadah. Wanita tidak memiliki hak khusus dalam hal ibadah, tetapi ia akan mendapatkan hak yang sama dengan pria jika keduanya mengerjakan hal yang baik. Surat al-Nisaa ayat 124 itu menjadi isyarat bahwa, perempuana dan pria bisa sama di satu sisi tetapi ketika melihat hak lain (yang merupakan hak khusus hanya dimiliki perempuan) akan terlihat perempuan tidak sama dengan pria.
Jadi, pada saat yang seperti apa wanita dan pria itu berbeda dan pada saat yang bagaimana perempuan dan pria itu sama? Ada yang memang telah diberikan (given) dan ada yang merupakan suatu pencapaian (achievement). Saya rasa, persamaan yang seharusnya diraih bukanlah persamaan dalam hal given melainkan achievement. Kita tidak dapat mengubah kenyataan bahwa seseorang memang manusia dengan kelamin perempuan dan seorang lagi manusia dengan kelamin pria. Given tersebut memang akan mempengaruhi achievement secara khusus, misalnya ketika wanita memutuskan untuk memiliki anak, mau bagaimana pun ia akan mengalami beberapa proses yang menghambatnya untuk meraih hal-hal yang dapat diraih wanita lain yang tidak memiliki anak, tetapi sebenarnya ia meraih hal lain.
Kepentingannya bukanlah mengenai hal-hal teknis seperti karena perempuan ingin mendapatkan persamaan hak, maka harus menerima tidak adanya cuti hamil, jika tetap ingin cuti hamil berarti gagal meraih persamaan hak. Jelas bukan itu. Sifatnya lebih kepada hal-hal fundamental. Seperti hak-hak untuk berpendapat, memperoleh pendidikan yang sama tinggi dengan pria, membuat keputusan tentang hidupnya, menjadi mandiri, dan sebagainya.
Adalah suatu hal sangat bagus bagi seorang perempuan yang memilih memiliki anak dan mencurahkan waktunya untuk membesarkan anaknya. Jika itu didasarkan pada suatu pertimbangan matang, yang merupakan hasil dari pendidikan yang sama tinggi, dan juga merupakan salah satu bentuk terciptanya kemandirian dan kebebasan dalam menentukan keputusan tentang hidupnya. Perempuan ingin berdaulat atas tubuh dan pikirannya sendiri.
Selamat Hari Kartini :) Walaupun mungkin di antara kamu ada yang merasa perjuangan Kartini itu kurang "feminis" ya mungkin saja benar, karena bagiku beliau adalah pejuang kemanusiaan.
Friday, April 20, 2012
Tuesday, April 12, 2011
Arguments Against The Existence of God
-The argument from inconsistent revelations contests the existence of the deity called God as described in scriptures — such as the Jewish Tanakh, the Christian Bible, or the Muslim Qur'an — by identifying apparent contradictions between different scriptures, within a single scripture, or between scripture and known facts. To be effective this argument requires the other side to hold that its scriptural record is inerrant, or to conflate the record itself with the God it describes.
-The problem of evil contests the existence of a god who is both omnipotent and omnibenevolent by arguing that such a god should not permit the existence of evil or suffering. The theist responses are called theodicies.
-The argument from poor design contests the idea that God created life on the basis that life-forms, including humans, seem to exhibit poor design.
-The argument from nonbelief contests the existence of an omnipotent God who wants humans to believe in him by arguing that such a god would do a better job of gathering believers.
-The argument from parsimony (using Occam's Razor) contends that since natural (non-supernatural) theories adequately explain the development of religion and belief in gods, the actual existence of such supernatural agents is superfluous and may be dismissed unless otherwise proven to be required to explain the phenomenon.
Atheism
-The problem of evil contests the existence of a god who is both omnipotent and omnibenevolent by arguing that such a god should not permit the existence of evil or suffering. The theist responses are called theodicies.
-The argument from poor design contests the idea that God created life on the basis that life-forms, including humans, seem to exhibit poor design.
-The argument from nonbelief contests the existence of an omnipotent God who wants humans to believe in him by arguing that such a god would do a better job of gathering believers.
-The argument from parsimony (using Occam's Razor) contends that since natural (non-supernatural) theories adequately explain the development of religion and belief in gods, the actual existence of such supernatural agents is superfluous and may be dismissed unless otherwise proven to be required to explain the phenomenon.
Atheism
-Strong atheism (or positive atheism) is the position that no gods exist. The strong atheist explicitly asserts the non-existence of gods.
-Some strong atheists further assert that the existence of some or all gods is logically impossible, for example claiming that the combination of attributes which God may be asserted to have (for example: omnipotence, omniscience, omnipresence).
-Some strong atheists further assert that the existence of some or all gods is logically impossible, for example claiming that the combination of attributes which God may be asserted to have (for example: omnipotence, omniscience, omnipresence).
-Weak atheism. The term weak atheism (or negative atheism) is used in two main senses, describing those who (a) do not assert strong atheism ("no gods exist") but rather the more minimal statement that for a variety of reasons there are no good reasons and no credible grounds for believing that gods exist. (b) neither believe that gods exist, nor believe that no gods exist. This is orthogonal to agnosticism which states that whether gods exist is either unknown or unknowable.
Agnosticism (untuk artikel tentang Agnostik dalam bahasa Indonesia, klik di sini)
-Agnosticism is the view that the truth value of certain claims — especially claims about the existence of any deity, but also other religious and metaphysical claims — is unknown or unknowable.
Agnosticism (untuk artikel tentang Agnostik dalam bahasa Indonesia, klik di sini)
-Agnosticism is the view that the truth value of certain claims — especially claims about the existence of any deity, but also other religious and metaphysical claims — is unknown or unknowable.
-Agnosticism as a broad umbrella term does not define one's belief or disbelief in gods, agnostics may still identify themselves as theists or atheists.
#Strong agnosticism is the belief that it is impossible for humans to know whether or not any deities exist.
#Weak agnosticism is the belief that the existence or nonexistence of deities is unknown but not necessarily unknowable.
#Agnostic theism is the view of those who do not claim to know the existence of any deity but believes that at least one deity exists.
#Agnostic atheism is the view of those who do not claim to know the existence of any deity but do not believe in any.
#Strong agnosticism is the belief that it is impossible for humans to know whether or not any deities exist.
#Weak agnosticism is the belief that the existence or nonexistence of deities is unknown but not necessarily unknowable.
#Agnostic theism is the view of those who do not claim to know the existence of any deity but believes that at least one deity exists.
#Agnostic atheism is the view of those who do not claim to know the existence of any deity but do not believe in any.
Monday, March 28, 2011
Arguments of The Existence of God (Pro)
As what i've said in the last post of Agnostic (in Bahasa Indonesia), there is no argument can prove the existence or in-existence of God exactly. So, now I write some of the classic, the basic, arguments that pro to the existence of God. For the arguments against it, wait please, I'll write it soon.
The Existence of God
The Existence of God
-A basic problem is that there is no universally accepted definition of “God” or ”existence.”
-A wide variety of arguments exist which can be categorized as metaphysical, logical, empirical, or subjective.
-The term "God" typically refers to a monotheistic concept of a supreme being that is unlike any other being.
-Classical theism asserts that God possesses every possible perfection, including such qualities as omniscience, omnipotence, and perfect benevolence.
-Other philosophical approaches take a logically simple definition of God such as "the prime mover" or "the uncaused cause.“
By contrast, Pantheists do not believe in a personal god.
Arguments for the Existence of God
-The cosmological argument argues that there was a "first cause", or "prime mover" who is identified as God. It starts with a claim about the world, like its containing entities or motion.
-The teleological argument argues that the universe's order and complexity are best explained by reference to a creator God. It starts with a rather more complicated claim about the world, i.e. that it exhibits order and design.
-The ontological argument is based on arguments about a "being greater than which cannot be conceived.“ It starts simply with a concept of God.
-The anthropic argument suggests that basic facts, such as our existence, are best explained by the existence of God.
-A wide variety of arguments exist which can be categorized as metaphysical, logical, empirical, or subjective.
-The term "God" typically refers to a monotheistic concept of a supreme being that is unlike any other being.
-Classical theism asserts that God possesses every possible perfection, including such qualities as omniscience, omnipotence, and perfect benevolence.
-Other philosophical approaches take a logically simple definition of God such as "the prime mover" or "the uncaused cause.“
By contrast, Pantheists do not believe in a personal god.
Arguments for the Existence of God
-The cosmological argument argues that there was a "first cause", or "prime mover" who is identified as God. It starts with a claim about the world, like its containing entities or motion.
-The teleological argument argues that the universe's order and complexity are best explained by reference to a creator God. It starts with a rather more complicated claim about the world, i.e. that it exhibits order and design.
-The ontological argument is based on arguments about a "being greater than which cannot be conceived.“ It starts simply with a concept of God.
-The anthropic argument suggests that basic facts, such as our existence, are best explained by the existence of God.
-The moral argument argues that the existence of objective morality depends on the existence of God.
The Cosmological Argument
-The cosmological argument is an argument for the existence of a First Cause (an Uncaused cause) to the universe, and by extension is often used as an argument for the existence of an "unconditioned" or "supreme" being, identified as God.
-It is traditionally known as an argument from universal causation, an argument from first cause, the causal argument or the argument from existence.
-The basic premise of this argument is that something caused the Universe to exist, and this First Cause must be God.
The Cosmological Argument
-The cosmological argument is an argument for the existence of a First Cause (an Uncaused cause) to the universe, and by extension is often used as an argument for the existence of an "unconditioned" or "supreme" being, identified as God.
-It is traditionally known as an argument from universal causation, an argument from first cause, the causal argument or the argument from existence.
-The basic premise of this argument is that something caused the Universe to exist, and this First Cause must be God.
-It has been used by various theologians and philosophers over the centuries, from Plato and Aristotle to the medieval St. Thomas Aquinas and the 20th century Frederick Copleston.
-The cosmological argument could be stated as follows:
-The cosmological argument could be stated as follows:
#Every finite and contingent being has a cause.
#Nothing finite and contingent can cause itself.
#A causal chain cannot be of infinite length.
#Therefore, a First Cause (or something that is not an effect) must exist.
-In light of the Big Bang theory, a stylized version of argument has emerged, such as this:
#Whatever begins to exist has a cause.
#The Universe began to exist.
#Therefore, the Universe had a cause.
Teleological Argument
-A teleological argument, or argument from design, is an argument for the existence of God based on perceived evidence of order, purpose, design, or direction — or some combination of these — in nature.
-The word "teleological" is derived from the Greek word telos, meaning "end" or "purpose".
-Teleology is the supposition that there is purpose or directive principle in the works and processes of nature.
-The basic argument can be stated as follows:
#Nature exhibits complexity, order, adaptation, purpose and/or beauty.
#The exhibited feature(s) cannot be explained by random or accidental processes, but only as a product of mind.
#Therefore, there exists a mind that has produced or is producing nature.
-Other form of the argument stated as follows:
#All things that are designed were preconceived, intended, purposed or contrived.
#Preconception, intention, purpose, and contrivance necessitate an intellect, mind or will.
#All things that are irreducibly complex display intention and preconception.
#The universe contains non-man made things that are irreducibly complex.
#Those things display intention and preconception. Those things necessitate an intellect, mind or will.
Ontological Argument
-Ontological argument attempts the method of a priori proof, which uses intuition and reason alone. It was first proposed by the Medieval philosophers such as Avicenna and Anselm of Canterbury.
-The ontological argument has been a controversial topic in philosophy. Many philosophers, including St. Thomas Aquinas, David Hume, Immanuel Kant, and Bertrand Russell, have openly criticized it.
-Among Islamic philosophers, Al-Ghazali, Averroes and Mulla Sadra criticised Avicenna's argument in varied ways.
-The argument examines the concept of God, and states that if we can conceive of the greatest possible being, then it must exist.
-The argument is often criticized as committing a bare assertion fallacy, as it offers no supportive premise other than qualities inherent to the unproven statement.
-This is also called a circular argument, because the premise relies on the conclusion, which in turn relies on the premise.
-Anselm′s Argument for the Existence of God is as follows:
#God is that than which nothing greater can be conceived
#God may exist in the understanding.
#To exist in reality and in the understanding is greater than to exist in the understanding alone.
#Therefore, God exists in reality.
Anthropic Argument
-Also called a fine-tuned universe argument.
-The idea that the conditions that allow life in the Universe can only occur when certain universal fundamental physical constants lie within a very narrow range, so that if any of several fundamental constants were only slightly different the universe would be unlikely to be conducive to the establishment and development of matter, astronomical structures, elemental diversity, or life as it is presently understood.
-Stephen Hawking said, "The laws of science, as we know them at present, contain many fundamental numbers, like the size of the electric charge of the electron and the ratio of the masses of the proton and the electron. ... The remarkable fact is that the values of these numbers seem to have been very finely adjusted to make possible the development of life."
Moral Argument
-This argument comes in different forms, all aiming to demonstrate God’s existence from some observations about morality in the world.
-All forms of the moral argument begin with the premise of moral normativity, that is, that well-functioning human beings are typically aware of actions as being right and wrong.
-Furthermore, this awareness binds them to certain obligations, regardless of their personal goals and ends. In this sense, moral qualities have the appearance of objectivity.
-When someone says "I ought to do something" they do not mean the same as "I would like to do something".
-Moral facts exist. Moral facts are transcendental in nature. The best explanation of there being transcendental moral facts is provided by theism. Therefore the existence of moral facts provides good grounds for thinking theism is true.
-Moral Argument (Kant)
#Nothing finite and contingent can cause itself.
#A causal chain cannot be of infinite length.
#Therefore, a First Cause (or something that is not an effect) must exist.
-In light of the Big Bang theory, a stylized version of argument has emerged, such as this:
#Whatever begins to exist has a cause.
#The Universe began to exist.
#Therefore, the Universe had a cause.
Teleological Argument
-A teleological argument, or argument from design, is an argument for the existence of God based on perceived evidence of order, purpose, design, or direction — or some combination of these — in nature.
-The word "teleological" is derived from the Greek word telos, meaning "end" or "purpose".
-Teleology is the supposition that there is purpose or directive principle in the works and processes of nature.
-The basic argument can be stated as follows:
#Nature exhibits complexity, order, adaptation, purpose and/or beauty.
#The exhibited feature(s) cannot be explained by random or accidental processes, but only as a product of mind.
#Therefore, there exists a mind that has produced or is producing nature.
-Other form of the argument stated as follows:
#All things that are designed were preconceived, intended, purposed or contrived.
#Preconception, intention, purpose, and contrivance necessitate an intellect, mind or will.
#All things that are irreducibly complex display intention and preconception.
#The universe contains non-man made things that are irreducibly complex.
#Those things display intention and preconception. Those things necessitate an intellect, mind or will.
Ontological Argument
-Ontological argument attempts the method of a priori proof, which uses intuition and reason alone. It was first proposed by the Medieval philosophers such as Avicenna and Anselm of Canterbury.
-The ontological argument has been a controversial topic in philosophy. Many philosophers, including St. Thomas Aquinas, David Hume, Immanuel Kant, and Bertrand Russell, have openly criticized it.
-Among Islamic philosophers, Al-Ghazali, Averroes and Mulla Sadra criticised Avicenna's argument in varied ways.
-The argument examines the concept of God, and states that if we can conceive of the greatest possible being, then it must exist.
-The argument is often criticized as committing a bare assertion fallacy, as it offers no supportive premise other than qualities inherent to the unproven statement.
-This is also called a circular argument, because the premise relies on the conclusion, which in turn relies on the premise.
-Anselm′s Argument for the Existence of God is as follows:
#God is that than which nothing greater can be conceived
#God may exist in the understanding.
#To exist in reality and in the understanding is greater than to exist in the understanding alone.
#Therefore, God exists in reality.
Anthropic Argument
-Also called a fine-tuned universe argument.
-The idea that the conditions that allow life in the Universe can only occur when certain universal fundamental physical constants lie within a very narrow range, so that if any of several fundamental constants were only slightly different the universe would be unlikely to be conducive to the establishment and development of matter, astronomical structures, elemental diversity, or life as it is presently understood.
-Stephen Hawking said, "The laws of science, as we know them at present, contain many fundamental numbers, like the size of the electric charge of the electron and the ratio of the masses of the proton and the electron. ... The remarkable fact is that the values of these numbers seem to have been very finely adjusted to make possible the development of life."
Moral Argument
-This argument comes in different forms, all aiming to demonstrate God’s existence from some observations about morality in the world.
-All forms of the moral argument begin with the premise of moral normativity, that is, that well-functioning human beings are typically aware of actions as being right and wrong.
-Furthermore, this awareness binds them to certain obligations, regardless of their personal goals and ends. In this sense, moral qualities have the appearance of objectivity.
-When someone says "I ought to do something" they do not mean the same as "I would like to do something".
-Moral facts exist. Moral facts are transcendental in nature. The best explanation of there being transcendental moral facts is provided by theism. Therefore the existence of moral facts provides good grounds for thinking theism is true.
-Moral Argument (Kant)
#The summum bonum (Highest Good) is where moral virtue and happiness coincide.
#We are rationally obliged to attain the summum bonum.
#What we are obliged to attain, it must be possible for us to attain.
#If there is no god or afterlife, it is not possible to attain the summum bonum.
#God (or the afterlife) must exist.
#We are rationally obliged to attain the summum bonum.
#What we are obliged to attain, it must be possible for us to attain.
#If there is no god or afterlife, it is not possible to attain the summum bonum.
#God (or the afterlife) must exist.
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